Tag Archives: religion
Balinese Temples and Holy Men
Balinese Temples and Holy Men
Introduction
It is often said that there are more temples per square mile in Bali than anywhere else in the world and this could well be true. There are hundreds of thousands of them, many more than the number of 20,000 that is often cited. Swellengrebel in his Bali: Studies in Life, Thought and Ritual, 1960, mentioned that figure.
There are family temples, village temples, royal temples, rice temples, mountain temples, river temples, water temples, market temples, temples to particular gods or goddesses and so on and so on. The key point is that each temple represents, and has a congregation of, a particular social unit. In that temple offerings will be made on a regular basis to the gods that are linked to and concerned with their affairs. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Great gods are worshipped in great temples and lesser gods are worshipped in local temples. The Sea God, for example, has relevance for more than one community and so is not be worshipped in a mere local temple.
The temple will have a shrine to the principal deity, but possibly also smaller shrine to other deities that are connected in some way. So, for example, the principal deity in a market temple is Maya Sih, who is the mistress of illusions. But there will also be smaller shrines to Dewi Sri, the Rice goddess. Rice is sold in markets and markets are therefore important to the Rice goddess. This has the effect of linking market temples to rice temples
Other places can become holy. Trees can become holy. Rocks can become holy. Places holding a holy object engender respect, as do the dwelling places of spirits, and become holy.
Pura means temple. (Puri means palace, the place where royal families live). Balinese only visit those temples that have a social relevance for them. There are some temples, however, that have relevance for everyone.
State temples: Sad-Kahyangan
There are six state temples, all ancient historical sites, in which all Balinese have an interest, as they protect the entire island and the Balinese people as a whole. They are called the Sad-Kahyangan or Six Great Temples.
Different regions mention different temples, but most commentators describe them as:
Pura Besakih
the Mother Temple, which is the most important temple in Bali and is the spiritual and religious centre of the universe, where Brahma, Wisnu and Siwa are worshipped, as well as many kings and princes of the past, who have become divine ancestors. See the chapterent itled Famous Balinese Temples in Secrets of Bali for a detailed description of the temple.
Pura Uluwatu
which sits on a cliff in the most southern tip of Bali and is also described in the chapter entitled Famous Balinese Temples in Secrets of Bali..
Pura Goa Lawah
the bat cave temple, near Kusamba on the coast.
Pura Lempuyang Luhur
in the Karangasem district in East Bali.
Pura Batukau
on the slope of Batukau mountain in the Tabanan district, which is said to be the oldest temple in Bali, because Siwa sent seven of his children from Mount Semeru in Java to the sacred places in Bali and the gods arrived at Batukau first as they were coming from the west.
Pura Pulaki
the second largest temple in Bali, in the Singaraja district in North Bali.
The stake that every Balinese has in these six great temples reinforces the notion of the oneness of Balinese civilization and that despite the so-called caste system that the Balinese people are one.
Village temples: Kahyangan Tiga
There are the following three temples in nearly every village. They are called the Kahyangan Tiga, the Three Great Temples, and are said to have been initiated by Empu Kuturan, the legendary Javanese priest in the 11th century:
Pura Puseh
in the mountainward kaja area devoted to the founders of the village and dedicated to Wisnu, god of water, called the Origin or Navel Temple.
Pura Desa
in the centre of the village, at the village courtyard or main crossroads, devoted to the affairs of the village, men in other words, where the banjar meets and dedicated to Brahma.
Pura Dalem
in the seaward kelod area, devoted to the souls of the dead but not yet cremated, and dedicated to Siwa or his wife, Durga, called the Death or the Underworld Temple.
All members of the village, regardless of caste or status, may visit the village temples. A wantilan or meeting hall for cockfights is usually very near the Pura Desa and a huge sacred banyan tree often shades the area.
Kahyangan is an elevated word for temple, meaning place of the gods, and indicates a summing-up of an entire social order, be it the state or the village. Pura is the ordinary word for temple. The individual temples are, however, called Pura so and so.
Functional temples
Then there are functional temples. The irrigation societies, subaks, have temples, the farmers have temples, the merchants have temples, and the fishermen have temples and so on.
Temple anniversaries
Each temple, private or public, has an anniversary celebration, usually every Balinese year, which is every 210 days. These odalans are major events, usually with music and dancing. A few temples fix their odalans by reference to the lunar calendar and then they take place either at full moon, Purnama, or new moon, Tilem. Most odalans last three days.
Public temples layout
As mentioned in the chapter entitled Everything comes in 3s in Secrets of Bali., temples are divided into three sections. Gates divide the sections.
Between the furthest, holiest part and the middle part is a gate called the Kori Agung, on top of which is usually a carving of a bulbous head, called a Bhoma, who protects the inner sanctum.
In front is a free standing wall called the Aling Aling, which is to prevent evil spirits entering, evil spirits being able only to walk in straight lines. Private houses usually have Aling Aling too.
Between the middle section and the outer section of the temple is usually the famous Balinese split gate, called a candi bentar, which some believe symbolizes Mount Meru, the world mountain.
Structures within temples
Drum: Kulkul
Public temples have a hollow log, a kulkul, with a hammer hanging beside it, used to call the villagers to ceremonies or to warn them of disasters, like fires or emergencies or the discovery of a thief. The double sounding of the kulkul followed by a rapid striking means that there has been a robbery. It is usually in the corner of the middle part of the temple in a special pavilion or bale.
Empty seats: Padmasana
Padmasanas, the empty seats or thrones described in the chapter entitled Balinese Symbolism in Secrets of Bali, are found in public and family temples. They may also be outside in particular places.
They are regarded as the throne of Siwa. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Literally it means lotus seat. The base is Bedawang Nala, the turtle that supports the world with the two snakes. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Phallus: Lingga
Linggas are oblong rocks, rounded at the top, which represent Siwa’s phallus. Thanks to it, he established his superiority over Brahma and Wisnu. They are found in temples and sacred spots. Several are in the Elephant Cave in Bedulu near Ubud.
Pagodas: Merus
There is a beautiful meru in Campuan Temple, opposite Murni’s Warung. They are expensive to build, but very spectacular. These shrines are symbolic of the mythical world mountain, Mount Meru at the centre of the world, which is the home of the gods. Merus are likewise the homes of the gods when they visit during temple ceremonies. They descend to the temple down the open shaft, which is the centre of the meru.
Merus have an uneven number of tiers, one to eleven… Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
You can also tell the rank of a temple by the height of its merus. You cannot tell by the style of architecture. There are eleven-storied merus at Besakih and Mount Batur Temples, the two most important temples in Bali.
The height of the merus in family temples indicates the family’s caste. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Family group temples
Each large family group or clan has its own temple, the Pura Dadia, where family members pray to the founders of the family. Dadias are explained in the chapter entitled Names, Titles and Castes in Secrets of Bali..
Private family temples
Every Balinese does belong to a family temple and they need constant attention.
Family temples vary. Some shrines, however, are obligatory. The temple is always surrounded by a wall and built in the sacred northeast, kaja-kangin, corner of the family compound. In it will be shrines, about ten feet tall on chest-high carved plinths, mostly devoted to deified family ancestors. Offerings are usually placed there daily and always on important days.
There is always a roofed shrine in the family temple with three compartments devoted to Brahma (on the right), Wisnu (on the left) and Siwa (in the centre). It is called the Sanggah Kemulan, sometimes also the Shrine of Origin. It is a holy place and the central place of worship.
A Balinese origin story is that God created man as follows:
Brahma formed the bones, flesh, nerves and body temperature.
Wisnu formed the blood, marrow, fat, glands and body fluids.
Siwa formed the breath, the link between body and soul.
There is always a roofed shrine called taksu on the kaja north side devoted to the god of one’s art or profession. A performer of a particular art form, be it shadow puppets, acting, music or singing, will make offerings at this shrine for as long as the person performs. Great performances are said to have taksu.
There will be a high throne-like altar in the auspicious northeast corner called a padmasana. It is orientated towards Mount Agung. If a member of the family cannot attend a particular temple ceremony, he will pray at this shrine instead.
There is also always a roofed single compartment shrine in the family compound, but not in the family temple, the Sanggah Pengijeng, whose spirit protects the property. It usually stands in the centre of the compound.
Kitchens and wells always have small shrines, often high up out of the way, devoted to Brahma, god of fire, and Wisnu, god of water.
Balinese Holy Men and Women
There are many kinds of respected ritual practitioners in Bali. The most common are:
Pemangkus: local priests.
Pedandas: high priests.
Balians: mediums.
Sengguhu: exorcists.
Dalang: puppeteers.
Pemangkus: local priests
The common Sudra priests, pemangkus, have direct day-to-day charge of their temples, their affairs and their maintenance. They dress in white from head to toe, say prayers, invite the deities to attend ceremonies and sprinkle holy water over offerings and those who are praying. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Pedandas: high priests
The other kinds of priest are Brahman high priests, pedandas, who are well educated and versed in the holy books. They dress splendidly in black and white, wear mitres and carry out major ceremonies. They chant holy mantras, ring bells, waft incense and make elaborate symbolic hand gestures. They are more involved with families than with temples.
Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
In pre-colonial times there was a close symbiotic relationship with the rulers. Priests largely manned the royal courts. No priest could be consecrated without permission of the local ruler. No local ruler could be legitimately installed except by a priest.
Only a priest can directly address the gods in order to sanctify water. The pedandas enter into daily contact with Siwa, unifying their souls with his, and thereby make holy water. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Holy water can also be gathered from certain holy springs and lakes, but only that made by pedandas has sufficient power for certain, especially royal, ceremonies.
Their income is restricted to the consecration and sale of holy water, tirta, but they are allowed to accept gifts. Manual labour is denied them. They are the only group in Bali subject to dietary restrictions: Read more about it in Secrets of Bali. They meditate daily in their houses, called geria.
In earlier times they advised and prayed for royal families and strengthened the ruler spiritually. They settled disputes and were exempted from taxes.
Part of the ceremony of becoming a pedanda involves his symbolic death. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Being unified with Siwa also means that there will no longer be a series of rebirths. For this reason the multiple roofs representing the heavens do not appear above the lotus seat of the pedanda.
There is a small number of Buddhist pedanda (pedanda boda), who take part in some ceremonies. They largely differ in their ritual practices.
Balians: mediums
There is another category of person, the balian or medium, who is consulted in case of illness. Balians cure illnesses arising from supernatural causes. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali. It is estimated that there are about 2,500 different types of balian.
They base their knowledge on different sources, for example, palm leaf manuscripts, trance messages from the gods, ancestors or spirits, divine gifts like a piece of cloth, jewel or kris, Some specialize in divination, midwifery, abortions (now illegal), massage, preparing corpses for cremation, casting harmful spells or handing out charms.
Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
In the south and southwest of Bali the father or grandfather of a new baby visits a balian several days after the birth. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Sengguhu: exorcists
These priests specialize in exorcism.
Dalang: puppeteers
The shadow puppeteers are also priests. See the chapter entitled Wayang Kulit – shadow puppet performances in Secrets of Bali.
Balinese Religion
Balinese Religion
Introduction
Bali’s wonderful volcanoes, rice terraces and temples, dramatic ceremonies, cremations and dances, processions, offerings, carvings, paintings, masks, puppets and gamelan music are spectacular and colourful but pretty much devoid of meaning without an appreciation of Balinese religion. The vital thing to appreciate is that there is hardly any division between the religious and the secular world. God is everywhere and in all things.
Origin
The Balinese had a religion before Hinduism arrived on her shores. Many aspects of the old religion are still practised today. The Balinese share a common ancestry with the Malayo-Polynesians, who settled the islands of the Pacific several thousands of years ago. They worshipped many nature gods and ancestors. Their temples were open rectangular spaces with shrines. The gods were invited to visit the shrines during ceremonies. Fruit offerings were presented to the gods. All these are common to the Balinese practice of religion and suggest its origin.
Binary opposites
The Balinese believe that the world is divided into opposites, ruwa-bineda. This philosophical principle is also found in Java: good and bad, day and night, mountain and sea, the Pandawas and the Korawas in the Mahabarata stories, right and left, young and old, male and female, sun and moon and so on.
The Balinese view of the world is somewhat reminiscent of Heraclitus, the Greek philosopher, (c540-c480 BC). Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Balance
Many influences have been involved in the Balinese religion, which is known as Bali Hindu Dharma. The cardinal belief is that the world lies between two opposing and antagonistic poles. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
The aim is to achieve a state where the two forces of good and evil are in balance. This is the purpose of ceremonies, prayers and offerings. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Conflict
Hildred Geertz in Images of Power takes a more radical slant and says that conflict is the fundamental characteristic of life in the Balinese view of the world. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
On this view, temple ceremonies are best understood as procedures for accessing sakti in order to persuade spiritual beings not to destroy the vitality and fertility of the congregation and its lands, to hold off those that cannot be persuaded and to bless the congregation with the strength to continue to oppose them.
The Soul
Soul comes from the word for blowing; it is the breath of life. There are three main beliefs about the soul:
Vedic and Balinese view
This is that the soul migrates through bodies by means of reincarnation, like a game of snakes and ladders. The soul slowly progresses on its journey. Even Buddha went through countless lives. According to this view, the soul is separate from the body.
Abrahamic view
The Abrahamic view of Judaism, Christianity and Islam that this life is where you are tested. If you pass the test, you go to Paradise or Heaven, but if you fail, you go to Hell. Originally Judaism did not have much of an idea about the afterlife.
Chinese
The Chinese have all those views plus a view on immortality. Immorality depended on the body being made immortal. If it was not made immortal, the soul did not survive. To make it immortal it was necessary to drink mercury, gold and jade.
Reincarnation
There is a strong belief in reincarnation. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
A central theme of Hinduism, which was brought to India by Indo-European migrants, is that God is everywhere at all times. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Reincarnation is seen today as essentially Indian, being a major part of Hinduism and Buddhism, but it is also found in the Western tradition. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Animals evolved out of humans. Animals were humans in a previous life who could not reason well. Also, plants have souls, but they can only feel, not reason.
Aristotle also believed that plants and flowers have souls, but not consciousness. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Monotheism
The concept of the Trinity arose early in the history of Hinduism, namely Brahma, Siwa and Wisnu: Brahma, the Creator, Wisnu, the Preserver, and Siwa, the god of destruction and rebirth. Some say they are three manifestations of the one God and that the name for the one God is Sanghyang Widi Wasa. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
The State
After Indonesian independence, there was a debate over whether Indonesia should become an Islamic or secular state. Domination by an Islamic majority had long been a concern in Bali. The debate continues, but, for the time being, has been settled. Indonesia is a secular state.
To placate Islam, it became politically important for the Balinese to be clearly monotheistic. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
World religions
According to The Vatican Handbook 2000 and The World Christian Encyclopaedia there are 1.9 billion professed Christians around the world, 1.45 billion baptized Catholics and 1.2 billion Moslems. There are 811 million Hindus, 360 million Buddhists, 23 million Sikhs and 14 million Jews. There are 768 million non-religious people.
By contrast Bali-Hindus number 3 million.
Max Weber, the German sociologist, distinguishes traditional religions from rationalized religions and said that the world religions evolved from traditional ones, folk cults and folk mythologies. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Gods and Demons
Supernatural power in Bali is easily converted to good or bad.
The evil spirits, which live on the ground, and receive their offerings there, are called the Bhutas and Kalas. There are also witches, Leyaks. They study black magic, are usually married women initiated by a sorcerer, and get their power through secret rituals in the graveyard. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Anything, animate or inanimate, can be possessed by a spirit, good and/or bad, and is worthy of an offering to keep things in balance. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
God of Thieves
One of the more curious Balinese gods is the God of Thieves, Pelinggih Sang Hyang Maling. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Ancestors
The Bali Hindu belief in ancestors is different in nature from Indian Hinduism’s belief. Reincarnation takes place more quickly than in Indian Hinduism, occurring within a generation or two after cremation.
When someone dies, they are usually buried, and their spirit resides in Pura Dalem, the Temple of Death. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
The deified family ancestors (leluhur) are part of God and can help the family if they are accorded due respect. The reverse is also true: they can cause trouble to the family if they are not treated properly. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Ancestors more than four generations back begin to lose their identities. That is because they may already have been reincarnated. Geertz calls this “genealogical amnesia”. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Attendance
Most people belong to half a dozen or more temples and will attend them when there is a ceremony. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
There are no sermons – only a blessing with holy water and simple prayers and entertainment for the gods and ancestors.
The physical and the spiritual
Like the ancient Greeks, the Balinese do not draw a sharp distinction between the physical and the spiritual, so a deformed person is regarded as ritually unclean, mala. The inner life of a person is reflected in his appearance. Therefore, during important ceremonies, people who are badly handicapped, for example, by being blind, lame, or hare-lipped, are not allowed to enter the temple. Menstruating women are never allowed in temples.
Processions
Processions are a feature of many religions and a frequent occurrence in Bali. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Most temple anniversaries start their celebrations by taking the gods, their spirits residing in wooden images called Pratimas, to a holy river or the sea for symbolic cleaning and purification.
Holy Water
Bali-Hinduism is called the holy water religion, Agama Tirta, which indicates how important holy water is. It is used in every ceremony, in every ritual. It is poured over every offering, every sacrifice, every building, every rice paddy and every person. It blesses and purifies. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.Read more about it in Secrets of Bali..
Prayers
Prayers are an act of homage to God and form part of every ceremony. There are no formal prayers. In the temple prayers are said sitting on the ground. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
People collect their offerings and take them home to eat. Their essence has already been taken by the gods and enjoyed.
Entertainment
Music, dance and shadow puppet performances, staged to entertain the gods, who have been invited to the ceremony, usually take place in the evening.
See the chapters devoted to these subjects in Secrets of Bali: Balinese Music, Balinese Dances, and Balinese Shadow Puppet Performances: Wayang Kulit.
The chapter entitled Balinese Dances explains that performances take place in different sections of the temple. The holiest, purely for the gods, take place in the inner sanctum. Performances for two audiences, the gods and humans, are performed in the middle section.
Programme of a typical temple ceremony
These vary from village to village, but the basic scheme is the same. Normally a temple anniversary, odalan, takes three days. The main purpose is to invite the gods to the temple. The programme is described in Secrets of Bali.
Everyone’s Four Invisible Brothers or Sisters: Kanda Empat
Males have four brothers; females have four sisters. They are conceived and born at the same time. At birth they take up positions inside the baby’s body. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Adat
Adat is knowledge as to how to behave properly, imparted by the founders of the village, who have since become deified ancestors. It is from a word of Arabic origin meaning custom, but it means more than that. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Indian Hinduism
The foundations of Indian Hinduism and Balinese Hinduism are the same, but they have evolved and are practised in very different ways. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Chinese influence
The Chinese came to Bali as traders and plantation workers. They were Confucianists and their influence on Balinese culture remains profound. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Kawi
Kawi is Old Javanese, the language of the Hindu kingdoms of Java from the 8th to the 14th centuries. It became the language of the courts of Bali, but has not been spoken since the 16th century. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Lontars
Lontars are palm leaf manuscripts. Characters are inscribed on the leaf and rubbed with a mixture of lamp soot and oil. Religious writings are written on lontar books in Kawi. Few survive more than 100 years in Bali’s tropical climate. Many have been copied many times since writing started in the first millennium AD. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Traditional versus modern
There are currently two opposing camps struggling over the fundamental teachings of Bali Hinduism. The first camp comprises the traditional religious leaders, mostly pedanda high priests and traditional political figures from the Satrias caste. They tend to come from various royal houses. Prominent members of this camp are the nobility of the Ubud palace. The other camp comprises a loose coalition of various clan-based organisations and progressive Hindu scholars. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Islam
Islam was a late arrival in Indonesia. One of the earliest surviving signs is a tombstone found in east Java and carved in about 1082.
Islam is believed to have entered Bali between the 15th and 16th centuries. Traders from Gujarat in India and the Middle East brought their religion. Some believe that there may even have been a special Islamic mission to Bali to spread the word.
It is also possible that Balinese kings invited Muslim communities to Bali. A.A.W. Wirawan, the author of The History of Islam in Bali says that King Dalem Ketut Ngulesir (1380-1460), who was king in Gelgel, visited the Majapahit kingdom in Java and brought back 40 Muslims, who established a Muslim village called Kampung Gelgel.
Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
The first Balinese Christian
In 1867 a Dutch Reformed Church missionary, Jacob de Vroom and his associate, Van Eck, appeared in Bali. The mission was not a great success. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Tsang To Han
In 1929 the Dutch Governor General in Java allowed Tsang Ho Tan, who was a Chinese representative of the Christian and Missionary Alliance, to come to Bali to look after Chinese Christians. Many of them had married Balinese wives. He was not allowed to proselytise and if he did he would be expelled.
Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Protestant Numbers
The first Christian community was established in Blimbingsari in 1939 and the first ordained Balinese minister was Made Rungu in 1942. In that year 1942 there were 200 Christians, in 1950 there were 500 and in 1960 there were 2,000. In 1965 there were 6,500.
Christian Contextualisation
An important milestone was reached in 1972 when the Synod in Abianbase in March 1972 resolved to rid itself of the anti-cultural legacy of Tsang and accept, or as they put it, contextualise Balinese culture. This has led to the Bali Church using Balinese art forms in its architecture and services – paintings, gamelan music, dance, shadow puppets, and woodcarving. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Balinese Catholics
Catholicism has existed in Indonesia since the arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century, but it did not make headway in Bali until the 1930s. The first missionaries arrived in Bali on Easter Day 1936 and shortly thereafter converted a number of people in Tuka, a village, which is about 10 kilometers north of Denpasar.
Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Balinese Hindu Missionaries
Balinese Hinduism is not a missionary religion. In fact, there have been instances among the Balinese royal families of openness and tolerance. They have provided lands and helped build mosques for Moslem communities.
Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.
Summary
The traditional versus modern debate is an argument of the elite. The ordinary person is not much concerned with it. For them to cease to be a Balinese Hindu is to cease to be Balinese. Their lives are full of ceremonies. During a ceremony, the place of ritual activity is a stage. The believers are actors, the priests are directors, their helpers are assistant directors, and the gods and demons are the invisible but critical audience.
A pious Balinese leads a busy and crowded life full of rites and ceremonies, whose purpose is to cleanse the unclean, reconcile the irreconcilable, worship, appease, avert danger, obtain nourishment and secure a happy life after death and a good reincarnation. It is a full life and very difficult to maintain these days in cases where a business is being run at the same time.