Bibliography and Books

We have found all of these books to be very informative and interesting.

They were very helpful as sources for our own book:

Secrets of Bali, Fresh Light on the Morning of the World.

Anthropology

Island of Bali, Miguel Covarrubias, Oxford University Press, 1972
Kinship in Bali, Hildred Geertz and Clifford Geertz, University of Chicago Press, 1975
Negara, The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali, Clifford Geertz, Princeton University Press, 1980
The Balinese, Hugh Mabbett, January Books, 1985
The Interpretation of Cultures, Selected Essays, Clifford Geertz, Fontana Press, 1993
The Balinese, J. Stephen Lansing, Harcourt Brace College Publishers, 1995
The Peoples of Bali, Angela Hobart, Urs Ramseyer and Albert Leemann, Blackwell Publishers, 1996
To Change Bali, Essays in Honour of I Gusti Ngurah Bagus, edited by Adrian Vickers and I Nyoman Darma Putra with Michele Ford, Bali Post, Denpasar in association with the Institute of Social Change and Critical Inquiry University of Woollongong, 2000

Archaeology

Monumental Bali, Introduction to Balinese Archaeology and Guide to the Monuments, A.J. Bernet Kempers, Periplus Editions, 1991

Architecture

Architectural Conservation in Bali, Eko Budihardjo, Gadjah Mada University Press, 1986
The Traditional Architecture of Indonesia, Barry Dawson and John Gillow, Thames and Hudson, 1994

Arts

The Art and Culture of Bali, Urs Ramseyer, Oxford University Press, 1986
Bali Style, Rio Helmi and Barbara Walker, Times Editions, 1995

Autobiography

The Night of Purnama, Anna Mathews, Oxford University Press, 1965
Tjokorde Gede Agung Sukawati, Ubud, 1910 – 1978, Autobiography as dictated to Rosemary Hilbery, Mabhakti, Bali, 1983
Our Hotel in Bali, Louise G. Koke, January Books, 1987
The Birthmark: Memoirs of a Balinese Prince, A.A.M. Djelantik, Periplus Editions, 1997
A Little Bit One O’clock, Living with a Balinese Family, William Ingram, Ersania Books, 1998

Ceremonies

Seven Plus Seven: Mysterious Life-Rituals in Bali, Katharane Edson Mershon, Vantage Press, New York, Washington, Holywood, 1971
Ceremonies in Bali, R.M. Moerdowo, Bhratara Publishers, Jakarta, 1973
Once a Century, Pura Besakih and the Eka Dasa Rudra Festival, David J. Stuart Fox, Penerbit Citra Indonesia, 1982

Cookery 

Indonesian Food and Cookery, Sri Owen, Prospect Books, 1986
The Rice Book, Sri Owen, Doubleday, 1993
The Food of Bali, Heinz von Holzen and Lother Arsana, Periplus Editions, 1993
Indonesian Regional Food & Cookery, Sri Owen, Doubleday, 1994
Classic Asian Cook Book, Sri Owen, Dorling Kindersley, 1998

Communities

Adat and Dinas, Balinese Communities in the Indonesian State, Oxford University Press, 1993

Dance

Dancing out of Bali, John Coast, Faber and Faber, 1954, reprinted, Periplus Classics, 2004

Gardens

Flowers of Bali, Fred and Margaret Eiseman, Periplus Editions, 1988
Fruits of Bali, Fred and Margaret Eiseman, Periplus Editions, 1988
Balinese Gardens, William Warren, Periplus Editions, 1995

Guide Books

Knopf Guide Bali, 1996
Bali Insight Guide, Garrett Kam and Debe Campbell, Apa Publications, 1988
Insight Pocket Guide, Bali, Hans Hoefer and Made Wijaya, Apa Publications, 1998
Bali & Lombok, Lonely Planet Publications, James Lyon, 2001
The Natural Guide to Bali, Equinox Publishing, Anne Gouyon, 2005

History

Bali Profile: People, Events, Circumstances (1001-1976), Willard A. Hanna, American Universities Field Staff, 1976
The History of Java, Thomas Stamford Raffles, AMS Press, 1983
In Praise of Kuta, Hugh Mabbett, January Books, 1987
The Indonesian Killings of 1965-1966, Studies from Java and Bali, Robert Cribb, Monash Papers on Southeast Asia, no. 21, Clayton Victoria, 1990
Bali at War: A History of the Dutch-Balinese Conflict of 1846-49, Alfons van der Kraan, Monash University, 1995
Nathaniel’s Nutmeg, Giles Milton, Sceptre, 1999
Southeast Asia, An Introductory History, Milton Osborne, Allen & Unwin, 8th Edition, 2000
A Short History of the World, Geoffrey Blainey, Penguin Books Australia, 2000
The Seven Daughters of Eve, Bryan Sykes, Bantam Press, 2001

Masks

Masks of Bali: Spirits of an Ancient Drama, Judy Slattum, Chronicle Books, 1992

Music

A House in Bali, Colin McPhee, Oxford in Asia, 1972
Balinese Music, Michael Tenzer, Periplus Editions, 1991

Novels

Twin Flower, A Story of Bali, G.E.P. Collins, Oxford University Press, 1934
A Tale from Bali, Vicki Baum, Oxford University Press, 1937
The Year of Living Dangerously, Christopher J. Koch, Michael Joseph, 1978
The Painted Alphabet, Diana Darling, Houghton Mufflin Company, 1992
The Butterflies of Bali, Victor Mason, Periplus Editions, 1992
Bali Behind The Seen, Recent Fiction from Bali, Vern Cork, Darma Printing, 1996
The King, the Witch and the Priest, A 12th century Javanese tale, Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Equinox Publishing, 2002

Offerings

Offerings, The Ritual Art of Bali, Francine Brinkgreve, Image Network Indonesia, 1992

Painting

Walter Spies and Balinese Art, Hans Rhodius and John Darling, Tropical Museum, Amsterdam, 1980
Balinese Paintings, A.A.M. Djelantik, Oxford University Press, 1986
Neka Museum, Guide to the Painting Collection, Yayasam Dharma Senii, Museum Neka, 1986
Perceptions of Paradise, Images of Bali in the Arts, Garrett Kam, Yayasan Dharma Seni, Museum Neka, 1993
Images of Power: Balinese Paintings made for Gregory Bateson and Margaret Mead, Hildred Geertz, University of Hawaii Press, 1995

Photographs

Bali 1912: Photographs and reports by Gregor Krause, Hugh Mabbett, January Books, 1988
Bali: The Imaginary Museum, The Photographs of Walter Spies and Beryl de Zoete, Michael Hitchcock and Lucy Norris, Oxford University Press, 1995

Poetry

The Morning After, Poems about Bali by Bali’s major poets, Venn Cork, Dharma Printing, 2000

Politics

The Dark Side of Paradise, Political Violence in Bali, Geoffrey Robinson, Cornell University Press, 1995
The Politics of Indonesia, Damien Kingsbury, Oxford University Press, 1998
Suharto, Indonesia’s Last Sultan, Keith Loveard, Horizon Books, Singapore, 1999
Indonesia, An Eyewitness Account, Michael Maher, Viking, 2000
Jakarta Jive, A Story of Survival in a City of Upheaval, Jeremy Allan, Metafor Publishing, 2001

Psychology

The Balinese People: A Reinvestigation of Character, Luh Ketut Suryani and Gordon D. Jensen, Oxford University Press, 1992
Trance and Possession in Bali, Luh Ketut Suryani and Gordon D. Jensen, Oxford University Press, 1993
A Psychiatrist in Paradise, Denny Thong, White Lotus, 1993

Religion

The Mango Tree Church, The Story of the Protestant Christian Church in Bali, Douglas G. McKenzie in association with Bishop I. Wayan Mastra, Boolarong Publications, 1988
Bali: Sekala and Niskala: Essays on Religion, Ritual and Art, Fred B. Eiseman, Periplus Editions, 1989
Priests and Programmers: Technologies of Power in the Engineered Landscape of Bali, J. Stephen Lansing, Princeton University Press, 1991
Guidebook for Balinese Prayer, Terry Satterthwaite and Ketut Rusni, Wholistic Creations, 1996

Temples

Balinese Temples, Julian Davison and Bruce Granquist, Periplus Editions, 1999

Textiles

Balinese Textiles, Brigitta Hauser-Schaublin, Marie-Louise Nabholz-Kartaschoff and Urs Ramseyer, British Museum Press, 1991

Tourism

Bali, A Paradise Created, Adrian Vickers, Periplus Editions, 1989
Bali, Cultural Tourism and Touristic Culture, Michel Picard, Archipelago Press, 1996

Travelling

Travelling to Bali, Four Hundred Years of Journeys, Adrian Vickers, Oxford University Press, 1994

Wayang Kulit: shadow puppets

Wayang: Its Significance in Indonesian Society, R.M. Moerdowo, Balai Pustaka, Jakarta, 1982
Dancing Shadows of Bali, Theatre and Myth, Angela Hobart, KPI, 1987

Woodcarving

Woodcarvings of Bali, Fred and Margaret Eiseman, Periplus Editions, 1988

Balinese Dances

Introduction

Very few Balinese dances do not have religious significance. The subject matter is usually the opposition between the noble and the ignoble, the refined and the coarse or as they say in Indonesian the halus and the kasar. The opposition of these forces then leads to conflict or war. Dances are frequently based on the epics.

Balinese Dancers.

For the Balinese you are never too young to learn to dance. From the age of four, young girls are learning the legong dance. There are about two dozen dance schools in Denpasar.

Ramayana and Mahabarata

These two very famous epic poems are loved and well known all over Asia and inspire dances, puppet performances, paintings, sculpture, carvings and literature. The epics were originally written in Sanskrit, and then translated into Kawi. They flourished in the courts of East Java between the 11th and 15th centuries. The kings liked them because they enshrined and explained the authority of god-kings.

Both are extremely long.

The Mahabarata

Composed around the 10th century, the Mahabarata, which is 18 books, is one of the longest poems ever written, with about 90,000 couplets. It is about seven times the length of Homer’s Iliad or three times the length of the Old and New Testaments combined. It is about the battles between two related families, the Pandawas and the Korawas, for the control of the kingdom of Nastina. It culminates in a great war, the Bratayuda, in which the five Pandawa brothers confront their first cousins, the 100 Korawa brothers. After 18 days’ fighting and thousands of deaths, the Pandawas succeed. The stories form a large part of the repertoire of shadow puppet performances: wayang kulit.

The Ramayana

A Hindu sage, Valmiki, wrote the Ramayana in the 3rd or 4th century BC. It has about 24,000 couplets.

Rama, an incarnation of Wisnu, is robbed by his father’s second wife of his rightful position as heir to the throne of the kingdom of Kosala in India and is banished to the forest of Dandaka for 14 years. His beautiful and faithful wife, Sita, and his younger brother, Laksmana, accompany him. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.

Rawana seeks Rama, Sita and Laksmana in the forest and falls in love with Sita and decides to capture her. He orders his minister, Marica, to change himself into a golden deer and to entice Sita. Read more about it in Secrets of Bali.

Rawana disguising himself as a priest seizes the chance and carries Sita off to his palace. Rama and Laksmana return and cannot find her, but they discover an old friend, Jatayu, the king of birds, who tried to rescue Sita from Rawana, but failed and had his wings cut off. As he dies, he tells Rama of the kidnapping.

Rama gets help from the monkey army of Sugriwa, one of the monkey kings, and the services of Hanuman, the outstanding white monkey, by helping Sugriwa get his lover, Dewi Tara, back from his brother, Subali.

Meanwhile Sita has been resisting Rawana’s advances. He decides to fool her into thinking Rama is dead by bringing her a severed head. She does not believe him. Hanuman arrives at the palace to check it out, disguised as a fly. Hanuman finds Sita, transforms himself back to normal and explains he has come at Rama’s request. Sita believes, however, that it is a trick and it is Rawana in disguise. Hanuman shows her Rama’s ring and she is then convinced. Sita gives Hanuman a letter and a hair clip for Rama.

On the way out Hanuman purposely gets caught, so as to ascertain Rawana’s strength. He taunts Rawana, who attacks him and ties him up. Hanuman tells them he can only be destroyed by fire. Hanuman grabs the torch and burns the palace, but carefully ensuring that Sita’s apartment is safe. He returns to the forest and shows Rama the letter and hair clip.

Rawana sends Sukarana to spy on Rama’s camp at Alengka. He disguises himself as a monkey, but is discovered. Rama lets him go and he returns and tells Rawana everything he has seen.

Rama then sends Hangada, the red monkey, to Rawana to persuade him to return Sita and avoid bloodshed. Rawana tries to kill him, whereupon Rama’s army appears and a huge battle ensues. Rama and Rawana direct the battle and Rama wins. Laksmana defeats Rawana’s giant brother, Kumbhakarna.

Rama and Sita return to India and Rama is enthroned, but he suspects his wife of adultery and puts her to a trial by fire. She is proved innocent, but he still banishes her.

Audience

The Balinese do not watch dances as intently as Westerners. The story does not trouble them. They know it already. The audience does not mind at which point the story is taken up, nor at which point it ends.

The clowns give necessary information about the main characters, in a series of witticisms, and improvised comments. Whereas Westerners look for a story, the Balinese are absorbed in the rhythm.

The dancers

The individuality of the dancer is not important. He or she is admired for technique. The dance movements are within a narrow frame. The beauty lies in this. It is not emotional, but formal and detached, and carefully worked out. The gestures and movements are traditional, reserved and understated.

The gestures in Indian dancing tell a story, but not in Bali. They are purely abstract, although a few have dramatic meanings. Shading the eyes with the hand indicates weeping. First and second fingers pointing at the end of a stiffly extended arm is a gesture of anger or denunciation.

Balinese Dancers.

Eyes move quickly from side to side to stress the rhythms and accents. Faces are like masks.

They make dramatic entrances. Special melodies are played. The entrance is delayed as much as possible. If there is a curtain, the only hint of the dancer is his voice or the twitching fold of the cloth. When the curtains are finally parted, the dancer remains framed in the entrance. The dancer advances slowly.

The dance known as Kebyar, which means a sudden release of emotions, resulted in individuality in dance. The composition was free. The dancer sits in a square surrounded by musicians. He dances from the waist up. The story is not important.

Dance classification

Dances are staged in temples to entertain visiting deities and deified ancestors. The holiest dances are performed in the holiest part of the temple. Dances can be classified as follows:

Wali

These are the holiest: Pendet, Rejang and Baris Gede, which tend to be group dances of Old Indonesian origin, danced in a row or circle, with no plot. They take place in the inner sanctum, the jeroan, of the temple. They are addressed only to the gods.

Bebali

These are less holy: Colon Arang, Topeng Pajegan, Gambuh and Wayang Wong, They take place in the middle courtyard of the temple. These dances have two audiences, the gods and humans.

Bali-Balihan

These are the most secular: Legong, Arja, Topeng Panca and Kebyar. Literally it means “things to watch” and they take place outside the temple gates or in the courtyard. These are performed for humans only and do not concern the gods. Usually the only language spoken is Balinese.

Pendet

This is the welcome dance, performed in the holiest inner part of the temple, by women, who welcome the visiting spirits and present offerings to them.

Rejang

This is an ancient, processional, group dance, very simple and elegant, danced by women in the inner temple to entertain the visiting spirits.

Baris Gede

This inner temple dance is by men, dressed as warriors, with triangular helmets, covered in pointed shells. They carry spears and go through warlike movements and battles. They protect the visiting spirits.

Topeng Pajegan

This masked dance takes place in the inner courtyard of the temple, always on the first day of a ceremony. It is a male dance where one dancer plays all the parts in an entire story, changing masks as the characters change, in other words a one-man show. It is also danced in family compounds at important rituals, such as marriages, tooth-filings and cremations.

Gambuh

This narrative dance is at least 400 years old and the story concerns Panji, a prince, and his adventures with Candra, who becomes his bride. Old-fashioned musical instruments are used.

Wayang Wong

This is a sacred masked dance-drama. Wayang Wong means “shadow men” and the movements resemble the jerky movements of the shadow puppets. Its origins are not known, but it is thought to have been devised in the 17th or 18th century by the palace in Klungkung.

The story comes from the Ramayana and involves the Rama’s defeat of the demon king, Rawana, and rescue of his wife, Sita, with the help of the army of monkeys. Many of the characters speak Kawi, which is translated into Balinese by four clowns.

It is not performed often, usually only during the anniversary ceremony of the village temple, Pura Desa. It is restricted to around 19 villages, including Batuan, Mas and Pujung.

Legong

Legong Dancer.

This very famous, graceful dance is danced by three young girls and is quintessentially Balinese. The first to appear is a servant, then the other two girls, dressed identically. The story is hard to follow as the girls change roles in an almost imperceptible way.

The Ramayana Ballet

This was created in Bali in 1965. The story is taken from the Ramayana. Rama, the hero, helped by the white monkey king, Hanuman, and his army, defeats the wicked Rawana and rescues Sita. The gamelan is lively with quick changes of tempo, mirrored by the dancers’ movements.

Arja

This is Balinese opera or more accurately musical comedy. The dancers sing in Balinese and dance at the same time. Women often play the leading men, especially refined types. Men play some of the coarser female roles. The stories are drawn from the Mahabarata, Javanese romances, Chinese tales and other sources. Sentimental situations are developed. It is like a comedy of manners. The costumes are sumptuous.

Topeng Panca

This masked dance, invented at the end of the 19th century, by topeng dancers in the court of Badung, now Denpasar, is played in the outer courtyard by a group of four or five men. Panca means five. Many different masks may be used, ranging from kings to clowns and even deformed people. It is faster than Topeng Pajegan. There is a gamelan orchestra. Entrances are full of drama and expectation.

Barong-Rangda

Barongs come in many forms, but the most common is like a Chinese lion, the Barong Ket. Its origins are obscure. The barong is not a god. It is on a level with animals, a servant of Siwa. A village takes care of its barong and gives it offerings and in return it takes care of the village by scaring away demons with its dance.

It is mostly seen in dances and processions. Two men are inside, one operates the lower movable jaw and wooden head with its beard of human hair, and the other holds up the back and arched tail. The beard is the most powerful part. The hairy hide is covered with small mirrors and decorations. Barongs protect villages from the harmful influences of dead souls and demons.

If the masks of several Barongs come from the same tree, they are considered to be brothers and they often visit each other during ceremonies. The Barong will attend the odalans of the temple where the tree from which its mask was carved grew.

Rangda is the Queen of the witches, has a long tongue, pendulous breasts, long fingernails, and a magic white cloth which she waves. She is not a goddess, but is powerful and threatening. She is not all evil, however, just as the Barong is not all good. The Balinese never have extremes.

There is a battle. The Barong’s followers try to attack Rangda. Through her magic they turn their daggers, krises, against themselves, but through his magic, they do not stab themselves to death and fall into trance. The dance-drama often ends at this point, where neither good nor evil triumphs, which is the balance that the Balinese strive for.

Colon Arang

The name means “the candidate witch” and is a version of the Barong-Rangda story. It is played at night in the villages and belongs the bebali class and ends up in the cemetery. It is a 12th century Javanese tale, which lost importance with the spread of Islam. It regained popularity in 19th century Bali, especially at the palace of Gianyar.

The primary masked character is Rangda or Colon Arang, the Queen of Witches and goddess of death, to whom Pura Dalem in each village is dedicated. The dance may be performed on the anniversary of the temple, which is timed for the full moon. It is also often performed if there has been an outbreak of disease or just for pleasure. Durga is the female incarnation of the destructive aspect of Siwa. Death and rebirth are intertwined in this manifestation of God.

The story concerns Colon Arang, a widowed witch, who lived during the reign of king Erlangga in East Java. No one would marry her daughter, Ratna Manggali, for fear of her mother. In revenge Colon Arang went to the graveyard with her apprentices, danced and made offerings of corpses and appealed to Durga to be allowed to devastate king Erlangga’s kingdom of Daha. Durga agreed and terrible plagues and epidemics broke out.

Siwa advised Erlangga to enlist the help of the sage Empu Baradah, who sent his son Bahula to marry Ratna Manggali. He took Colon Arang’s book of spells, showed it to Empu Baradah, who memorized it and could thereby reverse the spells. He confronted Colon Arang and in a battle killed her, then brought her back to life in order to purify her soul. She was then laid to rest.

King Erlangga thanked the sage and the kingdom prospered so much, that when he decided to retire and become a hermit, it was large enough for his two sons to succeed him with a kingdom each.

The tale has been told by Pramoedya Ananta Toer in The King, the Witch and the Priest.

Kecak

This is a very exciting dance, frequently photographed, and the best-known dance in Bali. It is the Monkey Dance, created by the Balinese, with suggestions from Walter Spies and Katharane Mershon for Baron von Plessen’s film Island of Demons in 1931. It was one of the first attempts to capture the romance of Bali and transmit it abroad. In May 2002 one member of the original kecak group of Walter Spies, 90 year old I Wayan Limbak, was still alive.

It is based on the Sanghyang, an old exorcism trance dance. About 100-150 bare-chested men, wearing black-checkered poleng sarongs, sit in concentric circles around an oil lamp. There is no gamelan orchestra. They chant and chatter and sway like monkeys, arms splayed out, chanting chak-chak-chak. The pitch and rhythm varies, whilst inside the circle, scenes from the Ramayana are danced.

In the 1900s a Javanese dancer and choreographer, Sardono Kusumo, came to Ubud and took the dance to new heights, making it more dynamic with a lot of movement. He introduced coconut torches and simplified the story. He also added the nonsensical sounds chuk and thak.

It can be seen throughout Bali. There is an especially good performance on Friday evenings in the Pura Dalem Temple, Ubud, next to Murni’s shop, Kunang-Kunang ll.

Oleg Tambulilingan

The great dancer, Mario, from Tabanan, created this dance in 1951 for the Peliatan gamelan’s world tour described in John Coast’s book Dancing out of Bali. Englishman John Coast mounted this spectacularly successful tour against all the odds at a difficult time in Indonesia’s history. The dance portrays two bumblebees in courtship.

Frog Dance

This was created for tourists from an old story. A princess marries a frog.

Performances

See schedule of dance performances in the Ubud area.

Balinese Symbolism

Introduction

A symbol is something that represents something else. Balinese culture is very rich in symbolism. It seems that everything is symbolic and that even the symbols are symbolic. There are numerous examples.

Sounds 

These tend to represent different names for God. The most famous is OM, which represents Brahma or Sanghyang Widi Wasa or God. You will often hear priests intone this sound. The sound is made up of the letters which symbolise the Trinity, which is Brahma, the Creator, who is symbolised by the letter A, Wisnu, the Preserver of Life, who is symbolised by the letter U and Siwa the Destroyer, who is symbolised by the letter M. This spells AUM or OM. OM is the most important sound in Bail and starts every stanza of every mantra and prayer.

Writing

Writing can be just as sacred as the message it conveys. One story says that Saraswati, the goddess of poetry, brought humans into existence by the use of writing. Written symbols represent different aspects of God and are often joined together. Powerful symbolic writing on pieces of white cloth, Ulap-ulap, hang above doorways in Balinese homes.

Written symbols are written on the teeth of a person about to have his or her teeth filed. Written symbols are also placed on offerings and on the shroud of a deceased person.

The anthropologist Lansing has made the point that letters are used to create poetry. Poetry is a vehicle for the imagination. This allows us to see beyond the surface appearance of things.

The mandala

The Balinese universe is organised according to fundamental principles of classification. It includes directions, colours and numbers. There are 11 directions. These are the eight compass points, plus the centre and up and down.

Each direction has a sound, a colour, a written symbol and a weapon. They are linked to the nine gods, their consorts and organs of the body. lswara is white and east; Brahma red and south; Mahadewa yellow and west; Wisnu black and north. Brahma’s consort or wife is Laksmi, Wishnu’s is Saraswati and Siwa’s is Durga. The goddesses are regarded as their husbands’ sakti (spiritual power). All the gods merge into Siwa, who constitutes a higher unity, at the centre, with mixed colours.

They are also linked to days of the five day week and numbers. East with Umaris and number 5. South with Paing and number 9. West with Pon and number 7. North with Wage and number 4. The centre with Klion and number 8.

The enormous Eka Dasa Rudra sacrifice (see the article entitled Balinese Ceremonies) was structured on the 11 directions. The animals were assigned to particular directions. However the animals of the central group were further sub-divided into an 11-fold structure. The animals of the outer circle included white cow, goose, duck (east), goat (southeast), cow (south), dog (southwest), buffalo (west), deer (northwest), black monkey and garuda (north), and horse (northeast). The bulk of the animals fell into the inner circle and were divided according to their nature. For example, birds other than fowls were placed in the northeast, footed reptiles in the west, fishes in the north, creatures that crawled (centipede and snake) in the nadir, beetles in the zenith, flies and hornets in the centre.

Goris has suggested that, in the context of colour, the Balinese mandala is pre-Hindu.

Nawa-sanga: the Balinese Mandala

North
Kaja
To the mountains
Wisnu
Sri
Black
Purity, sacredness, prosperity
Gall
Head of household lives

Northwest
Kaja-Kauh
Sangkara
Rodri
Green
Spleen
Purity, sacred, prosperity

Northeast
Kaja-Kangin
Sambu
Mahadewi
Blue
Peritoneum
Shrines located

West
Kauh
Mahadewa
Sanci
Purity (but less than white)
Kidneys
Yellow

Centre
Puseh
Siwa
Wind
Mixed colours
Pancreas

East
Kangin
Sun
Iswara
Uma
White
Heart

Southwest
Kelod-Kauh
Camodi
Rudra
Orange
Colon

Southeast
Kelod-Kangin
Laksmi
Mahesora
Pink
Lungs

South
Kelod
To the sea
Brahma
Saraswati
Red
Impurity, strife, coarseness, lack of self-control
Liver
Pigs and rubbish

Abstract symbols 

There are many non-representational symbols. The gods have their own weapons, such as the Cakra, the magical discus of Wisnu, a circle with eight radii, with powerful energy. Iswara’s weapon is Badjira, Brahma’s weapon is Gada. Mahadewa’s weapon is Naga, the snake and Siwa’s weapon is Padma.

Similarly the swastika represents the energy of the universe in the form of rotation. The four ends of the swastika plus the centre represent the nine manifestations of God, as symbolised in the compass. The Nazi swastika rotates counter-clockwise, whilst the Hindu swastika rotates clockwise.

Representational symbols

There are also many representational symbols. The Cili, in the shape of Dewi Sri, with an hourglass figure, formed by two triangles, represents the Rice goddess. The rice farmers make a Cili out of rice stalks just before harvesting.

Every god is male and female, so there are the male and female aspects of Dewi Sri. For the story of Dewi Sri’s birth, see the article entitled Balinese Rice. The same goes for Siwa and Durga, who are a single force having two opposite forces. Cili are often used for decoration. She is symbolic of food and, of course, rice is food The Cili symbol is frequently woven into long palm leaf offerings called lamaks. They hang from shrines and traditionally temporary shrines, erected outside homes in the street at Galungan and other ceremonies. They are placed next to another symbolic offering called a penjor.

Places

Mountains symbolise the dwelling places of the gods. They also climb towards the sky.

Temples, in their three divisions, symbolise the underworld of evil spirits, man and God, each courtyard being reached by a flight of steps and higher than the previous one.

Animals

Many animals are symbolic.

The goose is the only animal in Bali that can live in the sea, on the land and in the air. As a result it represents the three levels of the universe. If one is killed, a purification ceremony is required.

Ducks and chickens are frequently used in ceremonies. A girl may have to kiss a live chicken or duck at her first menstruation ceremony to symbolise her identification and oneness with nature.

The turtle, surrounded by two snakes, looking like dragons, supports the earth on its back. They are often carved supporting the empty seat shrines, Padmasana.

Elephants have never lived in Bali, but appear as the popular God Ganesha, who can get things done. The curved dagger, called a kris, sometimes has an elephant to symbolise the strength and magic power of the weapon.

Dogs, especially those that have a reddish skin with black spots on their mouths and tips of their tails, are believed to be able to cleanse the universe. They are used in mecaru purification ceremonies. There are two kinds of dogs in Bali, village or peanut dogs, and Kintamani dogs. The peanut dogs, the anjing kacang, are so called because their bodies are small and tiny. The Kintamani dogs come from Kintamani, a village in Tabanan regency.

The gods have their animals that carry them. These animals have become symbols of the gods who ride them. The eagle-like bird, Garuda, is Wisnu’s carrier and Siwa rides a bull, called Nandi. There are several Garudas above the doors of Murni’s Villas. It happens that the eagle has 17 flight feathers on each wing, 8 tail feathers and 45 neck feathers. The Indonesian Declaration of Independence was proclaimed on 17 August 1945. The Garuda is on the Indonesian coat of arms and is the name of the national airline.

Plants

Betel chewing is a habit these days mostly of the older generation. The chew consists of three ingredients, the green betel leaf, the betel or areca nut and white lime. The colours are symbolic. Green is Wisnu’s colour. Red saliva caused by the chewing is Brahma’s colour and white is Siwa’s colour. These three gods comprise the Trinity.

Nearly all offerings have these three colours. As mentioned in the article entitled Balinese Offerings, the gods actually sit on their colours while they enjoy the offering.

Rice is symbolic of life. After praying in the temple, the priest gives the worshippers some grains of wet rice to press against their foreheads, temples and throats and to eat.

Flowers carry prayers and make them effective. The banyan tree, with its aerial roots, is a very sacred symbol. The leaves are used in some ceremonies. Coconut trees are also important.

Colours

As mentioned, certain colours symbolise certain gods. Colours also symbolise characters in plays; for example, Rama always has a green mask, because he is an avatar of Wisnu, whose colour is green (or black). A white mask symbolises a refined person, red or black a coarse, rough person. This colour symbolism is carried into the faces of shadow puppets for the Wayang performances. It also appears in the early Kamasan paintings. It is carried into facial make-up in dance-dramas.

The Balinese feast, Ebat has dishes placed in the direction of the colour of the food, so that green dishes are in Wisnu’s north direction, red, bloody lawar is placed in Brahma’s south direction, yellow turmeric is in Mahadewa’s west direction and white coconut is in Iswara’s east direction. To continue, saffron is in Maheswara’s southeast, green in Sangkara’s northwest, pink in Rudra’s southwest and blue in Cambu’s northeast. In the centre is Siwa with a mixture of white, red, yellow and black.

Umbrellas, flags and fabrics used in ceremonies have a similar correspondence with the names of deities and directions of the compass.

Water

Water cleans symbolically. Holy water is sprinkled on everything. It purifies. Holy water is used so extensively that Bali-Hinduism is called the holy water religion. Water has always been significant in Hindu culture. The king’s association with water and rainfall is a manifestation of both his power and his purity. The worst drought in living memory in Bali broke out the day that Sukarno flew in for a visit.

Inanimate objects

Penjors are long bamboo poles placed outside temples or houses having a ceremony and especially at Galungan. (For details on Galungan, see the article entitled Balinese Ceremonies). A long string is attached, at the end of which is the offering. The arched peak represents Mount Agung, the body symbolises the earth and the dangling head represents man’s earthly needs.

Babies wear a necklace containing the dried umbilical cord to ward off evil. The cord symbolises their four invisible brothers and sisters, the Kanda Empat, who accompany them throughout life. For details about the Kanda Empat, see the article entitled Balinese Religion.

Gestures

Pedandas, Brahman high priests, and pemangkus, ordinary temple priests, use elaborate hand movements called mudras, during ceremonies, which have symbolic meanings. Zoete and Spies said that a dancer’s hand movements were faint relics of a sign language. Wayang puppets have similar hand gestures.

Elaborate hand movements accompany even everyday offerings.

Ceremonies

Some ceremonies are themselves symbolic, such as a tooth-filing, which eliminates animal-like behaviour, such as lust, greed, anger, drunkenness, arrogance and jealousy.

The cremation ceremony uses fire as a symbol of purification and cleansing, so that the deceased’s spirit can be released and join the spirit of God.

For details of the ceremonies, see the article entitled Balinese Ceremonies.

Numbers

3,5,7,9 and 11 are extremely important in determining activities. Each god has his (or her) own numbers.

Introduction

The Balinese conceive of everything as having a tri-partite structure. They are not alone in attributing three as a special number. Christianity does: the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost. Freud attributes everything to the father, mother and child. The ancient Egyptians were very interested in the number three (and the number seven).

The Balinese divide everything into:

A high or sacred part (swah).
A middle or everyday part (bwah).
A low or unclean part (bhur).

An understanding of Balinese spatial symbolism explains many features of Balinese life.

The Outer and Inner Worlds 

The Balinese also see things as belonging to:

the Outer World or Bhuana Agung,or
the Inner World or Bhuana Alit.

They are connected. Something amiss in the Outer World can cause problems in the Inner World.

Outer World tripartite divisions

Some examples of the tripartite division as it appears in the Outer World are:

The universe or cosmos

The universe is constructed on three levels:

Heaven, where man’s spirit will return after cremation.
The middle world of man.
The underworld, where man’s spirit may be punished according to his karma.

Bali 

Bali has:

High, sacred mountains, where the gods reside.
The middle ground where men live and work.
The low, impure sea.

Strictly it is the direction, not the place that is considered pure or impure. Mountainwards is called kaja, seawards is called kelod. Kaja comes from two words – ke (towards) and aja (in the direction of the interior). Kelod consists of ke and lod (lod meaning sea).

The Balinese use these words to indicate directions and so directions are stated according to the speaker’s position relative to the mountains or the sea. So Northern Balinese mean south when they refer to kaja, the mountains, and Southern Balinese mean north. This system of orientation is also found among some Dayak clans in Kalimantan and may pre-date Hinduism in Bali.

It would not be right to conclude that the Balinese think that upstream or kaja is good and downstream or kelod is bad. Both are needed. They are seen as complementary opposites.

Village

Every village is laid out in three sections, each section having its own appropriate temple:

The most sacred is towards the mountains with the temple, Pura Puseh, dedicated to Wisnu, the god of water, where the village worships its deified ancestors.
In the centre is the village temple, Pura Desa, dedicated to Brahma, the creator.
The most profane towards the sea and away from the mountains, is the cemetery and the temple, Pura Dalem, dedicated to Siwa, the god of destruction and rebirth, or his wife, Durga, where the deceased who are not yet fully purified, through cremation, are remembered.

Temples

Temples are usually laid out in three sections:

The inner sanctum, called the jeroan, higher than the rest, where the holy relics are kept, located at the far kaja end.
The middle section, called jaba tengah, is the transitional section, where the storerooms and kitchen are to be found and pavilions for storing offerings before they are taken into the inner sanctum.
The lowest part, called jaba, is the most secular part, where blood sacrifices to the demons are made and cockfights held and where people eat, chat and play cards.

Temple walls

Images on the temple walls follow the same pattern:

At the top of the walls are symbols of the gods and the upper world.
In the centre are scenes from the human world.
At the bottom are pictures of serpents. Serpents coil around the foundations of the world in Balinese mythology.

Inner World tripartite divisions

This is the world of the self, of the microcosm. Examples of the tripartite division are:

Family house compound

The family compound is walled with a single gate in the southwest, kelod-kauh, corner Every house compound, and the buildings in it, is laid out similarly according to the kaja-kelod axis:

The family temple with its shrines to the gods and ancestors must be in the northeast, kaja-kangin corner, and separated by a wall.
The living areas are in the middle.
The kitchen, animal pens and garbage pits are at the southerly kelod end. The kitchen will be placed further kelod than the rice-barn, because rice is sacred, whilst eating is animalistic. Walls give protection against evil spirits.

Each building has three parts:

A roof.
Walls.
Foundations.

Bale

The bale, the tower, which carries the body of an aristocrat to cremation, is in three parts.

The lowest is characterised by a serpent or turtle.

The middle part displays a mountain, indicating the earth.

The top part is a pavilion representing the atmosphere.

Pillars are divided into three sections.

Padmasana, described in the article entitled Balinese Symbolism, are seats for Sanghyang Widi Wasa, the Supreme God, and are divided into three:

The base is carved with Bedawang Nala, the turtle, which supports the world with two snakes.
The centre represents the world of man, where his daily activities are sometimes carved.
Various aspects of God are displayed at the top.

Offerings are constructed so that there is:

A base.
A place for food.
At the top some symbolic representation of the gods.

Balinese language is divided into three separate languages:

High Balinese, derived from Sanskrit, used when speaking to priests or referring to sacred objects.
Medium Balinese, a mixture of High and Low Balinese, used when speaking to strangers or persons of a higher caste.
Low Balinese, derived from Malayo-Polynesian dialects, is the language of friends and family. High castes speak Low Balinese to Sudras.

Each person

The Balinese view their own selves as the cosmos in miniature.

A head, the seat of the soul, the most sacred part.
A body or middle part.
Profane feet and lower parts.

Life comprises:

Birth.
Life.
Death.

This code, a mix of altitude and orientation, leads to a code of etiquette and manners, which it is important to observe. The difficulty for foreigners, new to all this, is that the Balinese are unlikely to put them right. It would be exceedingly impolite to tell someone that they were being impolite!

Balinese Etiquette 

The following matters of etiquette, which arise out of this view of the world, should be observed:

Take off your shoes before entering a house.
Don’t pat anyone on the head.
Don’t let a baby touch the ground for the first six months.
Don’t point with your foot.
Don’t put clothes on a temple wall.
Don’t walk under a clothes line, which may contain underwear, which would then be above your head.
Put underwear on a low rung on a clothes line.
Sit lower than sacred objects and honoured guests, especially higher castes and priests.
Don’t step in front of someone, but if you can’t avoid it, adopt a submissive posture and ask forgiveness.
Carry offerings and holy water on your head.
Don’t step over an offering or a sacred object, such as a shadow play puppet, mask or gamelan.
Don’t sit on a pillow.
Sleep so that your head points north or east, which is kaja, to the mountains.

East and West

There is a second axis, arising from sunrise in the east, kangin, to sunset in the west, kauh, and therefore running at right angles to the mountain-sea axis. As the sun rises, it brings day and life, which are uranian forces associated with the mountains. As it sets, in the west, towards the sea, it enters a chthonian sphere and sinks into the underworld. The lines of these two axes provide a system of co-ordinates and varying force fields. These determine ritual behaviour and the position of buildings.

Balinese Trees – Vegetables – and Spices

Banana trees

abound and grow easily. There are many varieties of bananas in the tropics.

Flamboyant trees

With their scarlet blooms and long seed pods they contrast strikingly with a tropical blue sky. They originated in Madagascar, an island that was populated by Indonesians 1,500 years ago.

Banyan or waringin trees

are places where powerful spirits reside – a belief common in many Asian countries. The tree is easily recognized from its thick twisted multiple trunk and numerous secondary aerial roots. Buddha received his enlightenment under a bodhi tree, a kind of banyan, in Benares, now called Varanasi in India, so it is sacred to his followers. In Indonesia the banyan is symbolic of the cosmos and society itself. There are always banyan trees in temples and usually at crossroads. There is a fantastic banyan tree on the way down to the Campuan Temple opposite Murni’s Warung.

Kepuh trees

are a feature of graveyards and temples associated with death. These trees have bare limbs and a desolate appearance and are very tall.

Manioc or cassava

is called ubi or ubi kayu in Balinese. When it is ground, it becomes the source of tapioca. It is a root plant and grows in dry areas. It is very common in lrian Jaya. Almost pure starch, it has little taste, except if cooked imaginatively. It can be steamed or boiled. The roots, which are long and slender, must be cooked thoroughly. The large lobed leaves, when young, are eaten as a vegetable. The older leaves are fed to cattle. Manioc flour is the principal ingredient of Indonesian crackers, Krupuk, of which there are many kinds. The manioc chips are put in very hot oil for a few seconds, swell enormously and curl up. Sometimes as a snack manioc is boiled with the skin on, then peeled, and eaten with grated coconut. Or it can be sliced and fried and served with salt.

Morning Glory

a green vegetable, much favoured in Asian cooking.

Coconut (kelapa) 

These are one of the most common trees in Bali. Indeed the Malay archipelago is thought to be the coconut’s first home. All parts are useful. They can be made into bowls and the shell fashioned into salt and pepper holders. They provide food and drink, vessels, clothing and houses – although you can die if a coconut falls on your head. They tend to drop without warning.

The Javanese revere the coconut palm as the symbol of knowledge. In Bali, it is the symbol of life and fertility. In the old days, women were not allowed to touch a coconut tree in case they ruined its fertility. Newborn Balinese babies used to be given coconut juice after birth.

It contains potassium and natural lecithin and is a good source of fibre. Oil is extracted from the dried fruit flesh and is used for soap. It is the preferred cooking oil in Bali. It has a distinctive flavour and tastes good with spices. Olive oil is not suitable for Asian cooking as it has a low smoking point, whereas coconut oil has a high smoking point.

Young coconuts are used for water and the jelly-like white flesh is eaten as a snack. The mature flesh is grated to extract coconut milk, mixed with warm water and then strained, and used in many Indonesian dishes. Unfortunately it is high in cholesterol.

Generally, the Balinese use a light, standard coconut milk, whereas the Thais use coconut cream. In choosing a coconut, ensure that it is heavy with juice and that there are no cracks.

The hard shell is used to make utensils and fabulous furniture. The wood of the tree is used for beams and rafters in houses. The hard shell can also be used as charcoal and is very good for barbecues. The coarse husk fibre is woven into ropes, mats and brushes.

There are 18 varieties growing in Indonesia. In Bali the small nyuh bulau or moon coconut is used in. Its skin is saffron yellow, which is a holy, symbolic colour.

Bamboo

There are more than 700 species of bamboo in the world and approximately half grow in Southeast Asia. There are many colours. Black and yellow are particularly striking. It is one of the most important building materials in Southeast Asia, valuable for its strength, being used for scaffolding and roof supports. Much furniture in Bali is bamboo. It can also be used to make musical instruments. The tender young shoots are eaten as vegetables. Long strips are woven into mats and baskets. Very fast growth is normal: on average one foot a day.

Palm trees

serve many uses. They provide woven walls in temporary huts. The tall palm is the source of strips of palm dried and carefully treated for traditional lontar books, on which are written religious texts. Another type of palm provides the alcoholic drink, tuak, and palm sugar. The areca palm nut forms part of the mixture for betel chewing, a practice enjoyed all over Asia, but now mostly among the older generation.

Giant tree ferns

grow all over Bali: the cooler climate in the north encourages their growth. Staghorn ferns grow wild on tree trunks and branches.

Umbrella plants

are common.

Sweet basil

grows well – the leaves are used to flavour food and are cooked with vegetable or fish dishes. The leaves are very fragrant.

Pumpkins

grow and we use them for pumpkin soup, which is a fairly new thing in Bali.

Balinese Trees – Vegetables – and Spices

Balinese Food Recipes

Introduction

There are very few serious Indonesian cookery books in print. The leading writer is Sri Owen, who was born in West Sumatra and lives in London. She has taught at Murni’s Warung and has stayed at Murni’s Houses & Spa.

Measurements and equivalents

The following recipes use Imperial measurements. Most Imperial units of measurement have the same names in the United States, but they are not all identical in measure! Weights are mostly equivalent but volume is not.

1 English teaspoon = approximately 1¼ US teaspoons.
1 English dessertspoon = approximately 23/4 US teaspoons.
1 English tablespoon = approximately 1¼ US tablespoons.
1 English teacup = 5 fluid ounces.
1 Imperial pint = 2½ US cups or 20 ounces.

To convert

Ounces to grams, multiply ounces by 25.35.
Grams to ounces, multiply grams by 0.035.
Litres to US quarts, multiply litres by 0.95.
US quarts to litres, multiply US quarts by 1.097.

Basic Ingredients

Lemon Grass: Sereh

This intensely fragrant herb is used to impart a lemon flavour to soups, seafood and meat dishes and spice pastes. It can also be used as a skewer for satés.

Cut off the roots and peel off the hard outer leaves; use only the tender bottom portion (15-20 cm / 6-8 in). If the lemon grass is not required sliced, it is normally hit a couple of times with the edge of a cleaver or a pestle to release the fragrance, and tied in a knot to hold it together during cooking.

Prawn Crackers (krupuk kedele)

Prawn Crackers (krupuk kedele).

Dried crackers made from soybean mixed with various types of flour are used as a garnish or eaten as a snack in Bali. They must be thoroughly dry before deep-frying in very hot oil for a few seconds, so that they puff up and become crisp.

Tamarind pulp (lunak)

The dark brown pod of the tamarind tree contains a sour fleshy pulp which adds a fruity sourness to many dishes. Packets of pulp usually contain the seeds and fibres.

To make tamarind juice, measure the pulp and soak it in hot water for 5 minutes before squeezing it to extract the juice, discarding the seeds, fibre and any skin.

Pandan leaf (daun pandan)

The fragrant leaf of a type pandanus is sometimes known as fragrant screwpine. It is tied in a knot and used to flavour desserts and cakes.

Krupuk melinjo

Dried crackers made from Gnetum gnemon fruit mixed with various types of flour are used as a garnish or eaten as a snack in Bali. They must be thoroughly dry before deep-frying in very hot oil for a few seconds, so that they puff up and become crisp.

Nutmeg (jebug garum)

Grate the whole nutmeg just before using as the powdered spice quickly loses its fragrance.

Garlic (kesuna)

Adjust the amount to suit your taste. Balinese garlic cloves are considerably smaller and less pungent than the garlic found in many Western countries.

Kaffir lime (lemo)

The most popular and also the most fragrant, the double leaf of this lime (don lemo) is often very finely shredded and added to minced fish, or left whole, and added to food cooked in liquid. Use kitchen scissors to ensure that the leaf iscut into hair-like shreds. If fragrant lime leaf is not available, use the zest of a lime or lemon.

The milder juice of a small round thin-skinned lime (juwuk lengis) is also used in Bali, as elsewhere in Southeast Asia. A large lime similar to those found internationally grows in Bali, and makes an acceptable substitute for the Kaffir lime. If limes are not available, use lemon juice.

Cinnamon (kayu manis)

The thick, dark brown bark of a type of cassia is used in Bali, rather than true cinnamon. The latter is far more subtle in flavor and considerably more expensive. Look for the bark rather than ground cinnamon.

Cardamom (kapulaga)

A straw-colored, fibrous pod encloses pungent black seeds. Each pod contains about 8-12 seeds; try to buy the whole pod rather than a jar of seeds as the flavor is more intense.

Kencur (cekuh)

Sometimes known as lesser galangal, the botanical name of this ginger-like root is Kaemferia galanga. It has a unique, pungent flavor and should be used sparingly.

Wash it and, if you’re fussy (most Balinese cooks aren’t) scrape off the skin before using. Dried sliced kencur or kencur powder can be used as a substitute. Soak dried slices in boiling water for 30 minutes; use 1/2 -1 teaspoon of powder for 2.5 cm (1in) fresh root.

Turmeric (kunyit)

A vivid yellow root of the ginger family, this has a very emphatic flavour. Scrape the skin before using. If fresh turmeric is not available, substitute 1 teaspoon of powdered turmeric for 2.5 cm / 1in of the fresh root.

To make turmeric water, peel about 20 cm (8in) of fresh turmeric root; slice finely and combine with 1 cup of water. Process in a blender until very fine, or pound the sliced turmeric in a mortar and then mix with water and let it stand for a couple of minutes. Strain through a sieve, pressing firmly with the back of a spoon to extract all the juice. Store in a jar in the refrigerator.

If fresh turmeric is not available, combine 4 tablespoons of powdered turmeric with 1 cup of water and mix well.

Steamed Rice

The Balinese eat rice at all meals and make it fresh every day. It is the basis of every meal. This is the traditional way of making rice, still followed, although the rice cooker is making inroads.

Steamed Rice.

2 cups white rice.

Method

1. Put the rice in a large shallow basket.
2. Shake the basket to toss the rice into the air to get rid of the husks.
3. Wash the rice in cold water and drain.
4. Put the rice in a conical basket over a large pot filled with water and cover it with a terracotta lid.
5. Steam the rice for 30 minutes.
6. Place the rice in a bowl with 2 cups of hot water.
7. Allow it to sit for 15-20 minutes to absorb the water.
8. Return the rice to the steamer and cook for another 30 minutes to dry it out.
9. Do not add salt during the cooking. Put a separate bowl of salt, fried shallots, chopped chillies and coconut oil for guests to add to taste.

Basic recipes for condiments, sauces, stocks and spice pastes

Bawang Goreng – Fried Shallots

1. Peel and thinly slice 10-15 shallots.
2. Dry on a paper towel.
3. Heat about ¼ cup oil until moderately hot.
4. Add shallots and fry until golden brown.
5. Remove and drain thoroughly.
6. Store in airtight jar.

Kacang Goreng – Fried Peanuts

1. Heat 1 cup of oil until moderately hot.
2. Add 1 cup of shelled raw peanuts.
3. Fry for 2 minutes until crisp.
4. Drain on paper towel and sprinkle with salt just before using.

Alternatively, packaged fried salted peanuts can be used.

Acar – Pickled Vegetables

1 small cucumber
1 medium-sized carrot
10-15 bird’s-eye chillies
6 shallots, peeled and quartered
1/2 cup water
1/2 cup white sugar
1/2 cup distilled white vinegar
pinch of salt

Method

1. Cut the cucumber in half lengthwise.
2. Remove the seeds and cut in half crosswise. Cut into match-sticks.
3. Peel the carrot and cut the same size as the cucumber.
4. Combine water, sugar, vinegar and salt in a pan, bring to the boil, simmer 1 minute.
5. Cool.
6. Mix vegetables with the dressing and refrigerate for at least 24 hours.
7. Serve at room temperature.

Sambal Sere Tabia – Fried Bird’s-Eye Chillies

1. Clean and discard the stems of about 25 bird’s-eye chillies.
2. Heat 1/4 cup oil in a wok or saucepan until smoking hot.
3. Crumble 1 1/2 teaspoons dried shrimp paste (terasi) and combine with ¼ teaspoon salt.
4. Add chillies, shrimp paste and salt to the oil.
5. Stir over heat for 1 minute.
6. Remove from heat and allow to cool.

Tabia Lalah Manis – Chilli in Soya Sauce

1. Slice 15 bird’s-eye chillies and mix with ¼ cup each of sweet soya sauce (kecap manis) and thin soya sauce (kecap asin).
2. Do not store for long as this sauce can become sour.

Saur – Fried Shredded Coconut

1 cup finely grated fresh coconut or dessicated coconut, moistened with warm water
2 tablespoons chicken spice paste
11/2 tablespoons oil
1 tablespoon chopped palm sugar
a pinch of salt

Method

1. Combine coconut with spice paste.
2. Heat oil in a wok, add coconut mixture and palm sugar and saute over low heat until the coconut turns golden brown.
3. Allow to cool before adding salt.
4. Store in an airtight container and it will keep fresh for several days.

Sambel Tomat – Tomato Sambal

This sambal can be deep-frozen. Served together with Sambel Matah, it makes and ideal accompaniment to grilled fish.

4 tablespoons oil
15 shallots, peeled and sliced
14 large red chillies, seeds removed, sliced
2 medium-sized tomatoes each cut in 6 wedges
2 teaspoons roasted dried shrimp paste
2 teaspoons freshly squeezed lime juice

Method

1. Heat oil in a heavy saucepan or wok.
2. Add shallots and garlic and saute 5 minutes over low heat.
3. Add chillies and saute another 5 minutes.
4. Add tomato and shrimp paste and simmer another 10 minutes.
5. Add lime juice.
6. Put all ingredients in a food processor and purée coarsely.
7. Season to taste with salt.
8. Cool before use.

Sambel Matah – Shallots and Lemon Grass Sambal

15 shallots
4 cloves garlic, sliced finely
10-15 bird’s-eye chillies, sliced
5 fragrant lime leaves, cut in hair-like shreds
1 teaspoon roasted dried shrimp paste
4 stalks lemon grass, tender part only, very finely sliced
1 teaspoon salt
¼ teaspoon black peppercorns, finely crushed
2 tablespoons freshly squeezed lime juice
1/3 cup oil

Method

1. Peel shallots and slice in half lengthwise, then cut in fine crosswise slices. Cutting them in this fashion ensures the slices do not separate into fine rings.
2. Combine with all other ingredients and mix thoroughly for a couple of minutes before serving with fish or chicken.

Base Satay – Satay Sauce.

500g (1lb) raw peanuts, deep fried for 2 minutes
5 cloves garlic, peeled
6-10 bird’s-eye chillies
10cm (4 in) kencur root, peeled and chopped
1/2 cup chopped palm sugar
2 liters (8 cups) fresh coconut milk
4 tablespoons sweet soya sauce
1 tablespoon freshly squeezed lime juice
1 tablespoon fried shallots

Method

1. Comibine peanuts, garlic, chillies and kencur in a food processor and purée or grind coarsely in a stone mortar.
2. Put in heavy pan with coconut milk and sweet soya sauce.
3. Bring to the boil, reduce heat and simmer uncovered, stirring frequently to prevent the sauce from sticking, for 1 hour.
4. Add lime juice and sprinkle with shallots just before serving as a saté sauce.

Base Rujak – Rujak Sauce

6 tablespoons tamarind pulp
1 cup palm sugar syrup
1 teaspoon dried shrimp paste, roasted
6 bird’s-eye chillies, left whole
1/2 teaspoon salt
1/2 cup water

Method

1. Combine all ingredients in a heavy pan and bring slowly to the boil.
2. Stir well and simmer for 10 minutes.
3. When cool, squeeze to extract all the juice from the tamrind and strain through a sieve.

This sauce is used as a dressing for vegetable salads or cooked vegetables.

500g (1lb) raw peanuts, deep-fried for 2 minutes
4 cloves garlic, peeled
8 cm (3 in) kencur root, peeled and coarsely chopped
10-15 bird’s-eye chillies, sliced
1/2 cup chopped palm sugar
1 1/2 litres (6 cups) water
1/2 cup sweet soya sauce
3 fragrant lime leaves
2 teaspoons salt
1 tablespoon freshly squeezed lime juice
2 tablespoons fried shallots

Method

1. Combine peanuts, garlic, kencur, and chillies and process or grind using a mortar and pestle until coarsely ground.
2. Put in a heavy pan with all other ingredients except lime juice.
3. Sprinkle with shallots just before serving.

Kuah siap – Chicken stock

To make beef, duck and pork stock, use same quantities but reduce simmering time for pork to 2 hours.

Makes 3 liters.

5 kg (11lb) chicken bones, chopped in 2 1/2 cm (1 in) pieces
1 1/2 cups of soup marinade
1 stalk lemon grass, lightly bruised
3 fragrant lime leaves
2 salam leaves
1 teaspoon black pepercorns, coarsely crushed
1 teaspoon salt

Method

1. Rinse bones until water is clear.
2. Put in large saucepan with cold water to cover and bring to boil.
3. Drain water and wash bones again under running water.
4. Return bones to the pan, cover with fresh water and return to the boil.
5. Reduce heat and remove scum with a ladle.
6. Add all seasoning ingredients and simmer stock gently for 3-3 1/2 hours, removing scum as it accumulates.
7. Do not to cover the pan during cooking as it will make the stock cloudy.
8. Strain stock, cool and store in small containers in the deep freezer.

Santan – Coconut Milk

This is used in many Balinese recipes. The thickness is determined by how much coconut and water is used.

Coconut and warm water.

Method

1. Grate the coconut.
2. Put the grated coconut in a large bowl.
3. For each cup of grated coconut, add one cup of warm water.
4. Squeeze the coconut for a few minutes to release the milk.
5. Strain the coconut mixture and discard the grated coconut.

Base – Spice Paste

The basic seasonings used in Balinese cooking are known as base – pronounced bahseh. They can be prepared in advance and stored in a refrigerator for up to a week. They can also be divided into smaller quantities and deep-frozen.

If you are using a mortar and pestle, grind the dry spices such as pepper and coriander first, then add the hardest ingredients, the roots such as laos and kencur. When these are finely ground, add the shallots and chillies, then finally soft ingredients such as shrimp paste. If using a food processor, blend the dry spices first, then add all other ingredients, except the oil.

Base Gede – Basic Spice Paste

This basic marinade is used mainly to neutralise the strong flavour of duck, lamb or pork.

Makes about 2 cups.

25 shallots, peeled and chopped
12 cloves garlic, peeled and chopped
7 large red chillies, seeded and chopped
5 cm (2 in) laos, peeled and chopped
5 cm (2 in) kencur root, peeled and chopped
10 cm (4 in) fresh turmeric, peeled and chopped
1 tablespoon coriander seeds
6 candlenuts
2 teaspoons dried shrimp paste
1/2 teaspoons balck peppercorns
1 pinch freshly grated nutmeg
3 cloves
4 tablespoons oil

Method

1. Pound or process all ingredients except oil as above.
2. Heat oil in wok or heavy pan, add all ingredients, and cook over high heat, stirring frequently, for 5 minutes until the marinade turns golden.
3. Cool before use.

Base Be Sampi – Spice Paste for Beef

To maximise the flavor of meat, make sure it is thoroughly coated with this marinade and refrigerate for 24 hours before using.

10 shallots, peeled and chopped
6 cloves garlic, peeled and chopped
5 cm (2 in) ginger root, peeled and chopped
10 cm (4in) laos, peeled and chopped
6 large red chillies, seeded and chopped
7 bird’s-eye chillies
10 candlenuts
1 tablespoon coriander seeds
1 tablespoon black peppercorns
2 salam leaves
4 tablespoons chopped palm sugar
4 tablespoon oil

Method

1. Combine all ingredients except salam leaves and oil, place in food processor and grind coarsely
2. Heat vegetable oil in heavy saucepan or wok until very hot.
3. Add ground ingredients together with salam leaves and cook over medium heat for 5 minutes, stirring frequently, until marinade changes to golden colour.
4. Set aside and cool before use.

Base Be Siap – Spice Paste for Chicken

14 shallots, peeled
26 cloves garlic, peeled
2 1/2 cm (1in) kencur root, peeled and chopped
4 cm (1 1/2 in) laos, peeled and chopped
10 candlenuts
12cm (5in) fresh turmeric, peeled and chopped
4 tablespoons chopped palm sugar
4 tablespoons vegetable oil
2 stalks lemon grass, bruised
2 salam leaves
10 bird’s-eye chillies, finely sliced

Method

1. Put shallots, garlic, kencur, laos, candlenuts, turmeric and palm sugar into a food processor and grind coarsely.
2. Heat oil in a wok until very hot, stirring frequently, until the marinade changes to a golden colour.
3. Set aside to cook before use.

Base Be Pasih – Spice Paste for Seafood

10 large red chillies, seeded and chopped
6 cloves garlic, peeled and chopped
15 shallots, peeled and chopped
10cm (4in) fresh turmeric, peeled and chopped
1 medium-sized tomato, skinned and seeded
10 cm (4in) ginger, peeled and chopped
10 candlenuts
1 teaspoon dried shrimp paste, roasted
4 tablespoons oil
3 tablespoons tamarind pulp
2 salam leaves
2 stalks lemon grass

Method

1. Process all ingredients except oil, tamarind and pulp, salam leaves and lemon grass until coarsely ground.
2. Heat oil, add ground ingredients and cook over moderate heat for about 5 minutes, stirring frequently, until golden.
3. Cool before use.

Soto Ayam – Indonesian chicken soup

This is a Balinese recipe of a very popular soup-stew eaten all over Indonesia. It originated in the Madura region of Java. Balinese chickens are free range – literally – they run all over most Balinese compounds. They are smaller, tougher and tastier than battery-produced birds. If you wish the soup can be cooked with glass noodles, chilli and/or kidney beans.

For 4 people

2 chicken breasts
Salt

Garnishes

1 medium potato
6 shallots or 1 medium onion, sliced
Oil, preferably coconut oil
6-8 prawn crackers (krupuk)
2 hard-boiled eggs cut in four
60g / 2oz beansprouts
4-5 sliced spring onions
2 small sprigs seledri or curly-leaved parsley

Condiments

2 cloves garlic, minced
Walnut-sized piece of fresh root ginger
1 cm / ½ in fresh turmeric root or ½ tsp ground dried turmeric
2 candle nuts or macademia nuts (optional)
1-2 tbsp oil, preferably coconut oil
8 cm / 3 in piece of fresh lemon grass or 4-5 leaves dried
2 daun salam leaves or 8 bay leaves
Salt
1 tbsp kecap manis or molasses

Method

1. Put the 2 chicken breasts in a pot, add a litre of water and add salt to taste. Cover tightly and simmer until well done.
2. Prepare the garnishes: slice the potato thinly. Then cut into quarters. Fry the sliced shallots in 3-4 tbsp oil in a wok, initially on a high heat, then turn down. When brown and crisp, remove and drain. Add the sliced potato to the wok (with the remaining oil), fry, stir occasionally. When golden brown remove and set aside.
3. Put more oil in wok. Add prawn crackers one at a time. When they expand put them on absorbent paper.
4. Put the shallots, potato and prawn crackers into separate bowls. Put them and other garnishes aside.
5. Remove chicken breasts when cooked and shred with a fork.
6. Prepare the condiments: heat 1-2 tbsp oil and fry the garlic, ginger, turmeric and nuts quickly. Add 375 ml / 2/3 pint of the chicken soup, lemon grass, daun salam or bay leaves and salt to taste. Stir and cover. Cook on a very high heat for 5-8 minutes. Add kecap manis or molasses, the shredded chicken and the remaining chicken soup.
7. If necessary dilute with water. Heat thoroughly.
8. Put beansprouts, seledri or parsley and hard-boiled eggs equally into 4 separate bowls and add the soup. Serve the shallots, potato and prawn crackers separately in bowls.

Tom

It is pronounced “toom”. Originally a banana leaf would be used instead of aluminium foil, and blood would be used instead of black pudding or pig’s liver.

For 4 – 6 people

450g / 1lb boneless pork chops
168g / 6oz / 1½ cups papaya or cassava leaves, or young vine leaves or curly kale
10 cm / 4 in stem of rhubarb or 1 green apple, peeled and chopped
285 ml / ½ pint / 1¼ cups coconut milk or cold water
85-110 g / 3-4 oz / ½ cup black pudding or pig’s liver
Salt and pepper

For the paste

5 shallots or 1 onion, chopped
5 cloves garlic, chopped
2 tsp coriander seed
2 tsp chopped ginger
3-6 red chillies, deseeded and chopped
2.5 cm / 1 in piece of galingale, chopped
1 tsp turmeric powder
½ tsp kencur powder (optional)
1 tsp shrimp paste
1 tsp salt
5 tbsp coconut milk or peanut oil

Method

1. With a cleaver, chop the pork chops, or mince them in a mincer. Keep aside.
2. Shred the leaves finely, and chop the black pudding, discarding the skin. If liver is used, chop this also.
3. Put all the ingredients for the paste in a blender or food processor and blend until smooth.
4. Then transfer to a small saucepan and simmer for 6 minutes, stirring often. Add the shredded leaves and the chopped rhubarb or apple, stir well, and then add the coconut milk.
5. Continue to simmer for about ten minutes. Adjust the seasoning and leave this to get cold.
6. Meanwhile put the chopped or minced pork together with the chopped black pudding or liver in a large glass bowl. When the paste with the leaves is cold, mix this well into the meat.
7. Divide the mixture into equal proportions, wrap each in a banana leaf square, and steam for 35-40 minutes.
8. Alternatively, place the meat mixture on a large piece of aluminium foil, roll it to make a sausage shape, and wrap it loosely in the foil, preferably with a second layer of foil around it. Put this parcel on a baking tray, and cook in a pre-heated oven at 160C / 320F / Gas Mark 3 for 50-60 minutes.
9. Serve hot and warm with rice.

Lawar Babi – Shredded Spicy Pork

Family ceremonies are always accompanied by food and lawar is always served. Lawar means “sliced thinly”. Men sit in a large circle and rhtmically chop the food. The expert at mixng lawar sits at the head. It is a style of cooking meat, fruit or vegetables. In the traditional recipe animal blood and entrails are used, but this is not necessary. In Bali pork is plentiful and a popular ingredient.

For 4 people

3 shallots or 1 small onion
2 cloves garlic
500g / 1lb lean, boneless pork, cut into thin strips
1 tsp ground cumin
1 tbsp ground coriander seed
1 tsp ground galangal (optional)
1 tsp salt
2 tbsp peanut oil
1 fresh red chilli, finely chopped
1 daun salam leaf or 4 curry leaves
250ml / 9oz coconut cream
1 tbsp dried tamarind

Method

1. Pulverize the shallots or onion and the garlic in a food processor or with a mortar and pestle. Rub this mixture into the meat, with the cumin, coriander, galangal and salt.
2. Heat the peanut oil in a pan and sauté the pork mixture for several minutes.
3. Add the chopped chilli, daun salam or curry leaves and coconut cream.
4. Simmer uncovered until the meat is tender and the liquid has reduced.
5. Break the tamarind into small pieces. Place in a small bowl and cover with boiling water. Leave for 5 minutes.
6. Squeeze to extract all the juice. Rub through a sieve to remove any pith and stones.
7. Stir the steamed juice into the pork.

Babi Kecap

This is a popular pork dish with a spicy sauce.

1 lb pork
2 long red chilllies
5 hot chillies
5 shallots
3 cloves of garlic
1 piece of turmeric
1 piece of ginger
1 piece of lesser galangal
1 piece of greater galangal
1 teaspoon terasi
1 teaspoon pepper
1½ teaspoon salt
4 lbs sweet soy sauce
2 tablespoons oil

Method

1. Cut pork into strips.
2. Blend the chillies, shallots, garli